The First World War (1914-1919)

The First World War was the most destructive major industrial war in human history till that time, with global implications. It started on 28 July 1914 with the assassination of the Austro-Hungarian crown prince, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, and ended with the Treaty of Versailles on 11 November 1918 and with the formation of the League of Nations.

However, the war left several unanswered questions, deep national anguishes, disrupted economies, and strong national currents that eventually resulted in the Second World War.

Preceding Causes

The outbreak of World War I in 1914 was the result of a complex web of actual and presumed causes, including deep-rooted structural issues, immediate triggers, and the influence of miscalculations. Below is a comprehensive analysis of these causes:

Actual Causes

1. Alliance Systems
   • Europe was divided into two major alliances: the Triple Entente (France, Russia, and Britain) and the Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy).
   • These alliances created a domino effect, where conflicts between smaller nations escalated into a global war. The rigidity of these agreements compelled nations to honor commitments, even when it was against their immediate interests.
2. Militarism
   • The early 20th century saw an arms race among major powers. Nations like Germany and Britain competed to build powerful navies while armies across Europe expanded and modernized.
   • This militaristic culture glorified war and created an environment where nations were prepared—and even eager—for conflict.
3. Nationalism
   • Nationalism fueled tensions in multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
   • In the Balkans, Slavic nationalism, particularly Serbian aspirations for unification, threatened Austria-Hungary’s territorial integrity.
   • Nationalist fervor also exacerbated rivalries among European powers, such as the Franco-German animosity stemming from the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71).
4. Imperialism
   • European powers competed fiercely for colonies in Africa and Asia. This struggle for dominance created economic and political rivalries, especially between Britain, France, and Germany.
   • The scramble for colonies also exacerbated tensions as nations sought to assert their power globally.
5. The Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand
   • On June 28, 1914, the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne was assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Serbian nationalist group Black Hand.
   • Austria-Hungary’s ultimatum to Serbia, which included severe demands, set off a chain reaction of war declarations among allied nations.

Presumed Causes

1. Germany’s Role in Escalation
   • Some historians argue that Germany pursued a policy of Weltpolitik (world policy), seeking global dominance.
   • The infamous “blank check” offered to Austria-Hungary by Germany is presumed to have emboldened Austria-Hungary to act aggressively against Serbia, thus escalating the conflict.
   • Germany’s Schlieffen Plan, designed for a quick victory against France, presumed a two-front war and arguably made diplomacy less viable.
2. Britain’s Naval Supremacy and Rivalry with Germany
   • Britain perceived Germany’s naval expansion as a direct threat to its empire and trade routes.
   • While not a direct cause, the arms race between the two nations heightened tensions and deepened mutual suspicion.
3. Economic Competition
   • Germany’s rapid industrial growth challenged Britain’s economic supremacy, while France sought to reclaim Alsace-Lorraine and lost to Germany in 1871.
   • Although economic rivalries were not a primary cause, they created underlying tensions that contributed to the eventual breakdown of relations.
4. Balkan Instability
   • The Balkans, known as the “Powder Keg of Europe,” were marked by a series of crises, including the Balkan Wars (1912–13).
   • Austria-Hungary and Russia vied for influence in the region, with both nations supporting opposing sides in conflicts involving Serbia and other Slavic states.

Structural and Long-Term Causes

1. The Decline of Old Empires
   • The Ottoman Empire and Austria-Hungary were in decline, and their weakening grip over their territories created power vacuums, particularly in the Balkans.
   • Nationalist uprisings and territorial disputes destabilized the region, drawing in major powers.
2. Entangled Diplomacy and Crises
   • Crises such as the Moroccan Crises (1905 and 1911) and the Bosnian Annexation Crisis (1908) strained relations among major powers.
   • These events heightened the mistrust between Germany, France, and Britain, making cooperation difficult when war loomed.
3. Inflexible Military Strategies
   • The Schlieffen Plan exemplified the presumption that rapid mobilization and offensive strategies could secure victory.
   • This belief in decisive, swift warfare contributed to the failure of diplomacy and the immediate escalation of the conflict.

The Interplay of Causes

While the assassination of Franz Ferdinand is often cited as the spark, it was not the sole reason for the outbreak of war. Structural issues such as militarism, alliances, and nationalism created a volatile environment, while immediate factors like Balkan instability and diplomatic failures acted as catalysts.

The presumed causes, including Germany’s aggressive posture and Britain’s fear of German naval power, were more circumstantial but added to the perception of an inevitable conflict. In essence, World War I resulted from a combination of deeply rooted rivalries, unchecked ambitions, and systemic failures to resolve disputes through diplomacy.

This intricate web of causes illustrates that the Great War was not simply a product of one event or decision but rather a culmination of decades of tension and miscalculation.

Warring Countries

The Allied Powers

1. France
   • Why Allied: France aligned with Russia and Britain through the Triple Entente to counteract the growing power of Germany.
   • France’s primary motivation was to regain Alsace-Lorraine, territories lost to Germany in the Franco-Prussian War (1870–71), and to curb German aggression.
2. United Kingdom
   • Why Allied: Britain’s entry into the war was driven by the German violation of Belgian neutrality, which Britain had guaranteed under the 1839 Treaty of London.
   • Britain also sought to maintain its naval supremacy and counter Germany’s growing influence in Europe and globally.
3. Russia
   • Why Allied: Russia was bound by a defensive alliance with Serbia and had longstanding rivalries with Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
   • Russia also sought to maintain its influence in the Balkans and defend Slavic nations, aligning with France and Britain to counteract the Central Powers.
4. Italy
   • Why Allied: Although initially part of the Triple Alliance with Germany and Austria-Hungary, Italy declared neutrality in 1914. In 1915, it joined the Allies after signing the Treaty of London, which promised territorial gains (e.g., South Tyrol, Dalmatian Coast).
5. United States (1917)
   • Why Allied: The U.S. joined the Allies due to German unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram, in which Germany encouraged Mexico to attack the U.S.
   • Ideologically, the U.S. also positioned itself as a defender of democracy against authoritarian regimes.
6. Japan
   • Why Allied: Japan joined the Allies to honor its 1902 alliance with Britain and to expand its territorial holdings, particularly in Asia.
   • Japan targeted German colonies in the Pacific and China.
7. Serbia
   • Why Allied: As the target of Austria-Hungary’s aggression, Serbia naturally aligned with Russia and the Allied Powers for support.
   • Serbia’s role in promoting Slavic nationalism was a key factor in the Balkan tensions leading to the war.
8. Belgium
   • Why Allied: Belgium’s neutrality was violated by Germany during its invasion in 1914.
   • This violation brought Britain into the war, and Belgium became a key Allied nation resisting German occupation.

The Central Powers

1. Germany
   • Why Allied: Germany’s alliance with Austria-Hungary was formalized through the Dual Alliance (1879) and later expanded into the Triple Alliance (1882) with Italy.
   • Germany sought to challenge the existing European order, expand its influence, and secure a dominant position globally.
2. Austria-Hungary
   • Why Allied: Austria-Hungary relied on Germany as a crucial ally to counterbalance Russian influence in the Balkans.
   • The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist prompted Austria-Hungary to seek German backing for military action against Serbia.
3. Ottoman Empire
   • Why Allied: The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in late 1914, seeking to counter Russian expansion and recover its declining territorial holdings.
   • Germany provided military and financial support to modernize the Ottoman army, creating a strategic partnership.
4. Bulgaria (1915)
   • Why Allied: Bulgaria joined the Central Powers after being promised territorial gains in Macedonia, which it had lost to Serbia in the Balkan Wars.
   • Bulgaria’s alignment was driven by hostility toward Serbia and its desire to reclaim lost territories.

Key Factors for Alliance Formation

1. Pre-War Alliances
   • Triple Entente (France, Russia, Britain): Formed to counterbalance the Triple Alliance and curb German aggression.
   • Triple Alliance (Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy): Designed to provide mutual defense against France and Russia.
2. Shared Interests and Rivalries
   • Nations within alliances shared common goals, such as territorial expansion (e.g., Italy, Japan, Bulgaria) or defending sovereignty (e.g., Serbia, Belgium).
   • Longstanding rivalries, such as Franco-German and Russo-Austrian conflicts, cemented alliances.
3. Colonial and Strategic Gains
   • Japan, Italy, and Bulgaria joined alliances based on promises of territorial rewards.
   • Britain and France aimed to preserve their empires and counter German colonial ambitions.
4. Nationalism and Ethnic Ties
   • Ethnic and cultural ties, such as Pan-Slavism, played a significant role in Russia’s support for Serbia.
   • Nationalistic aspirations also drove smaller states like Serbia and Bulgaria to align with larger powers.

Key Events

World War I, also known as the Great War, was a global conflict that reshaped the political, social, and economic structures of the world. The war, fought primarily in Europe, saw unprecedented levels of destruction and loss of life. Below is a chronological summary of major events:

1914: The War Begins

1. June 28: Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand

Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary and his wife, Sophie, were assassinated in Sarajevo by Gavrilo Princip, a Bosnian Serb nationalist. This event triggered the war.

2. July 28: Austria-Hungary Declares War on Serbia

Austria-Hungary, backed by Germany, declared war on Serbia, initiating a chain reaction of alliances.

3. August 1–4: Major Powers Enter the War

Germany declared war on Russia (August 1) and France (August 3). The United Kingdom declared war on Germany (August 4) after Germany violated Belgian neutrality.

4. August 1914: Battle of Tannenberg

Germany defeated Russia in a decisive battle, demonstrating the effectiveness of modern military strategies.

5. September 6–12: First Battle of the Marne

Allied forces halted the German advance near Paris, leading to the establishment of trench warfare on the Western Front.

1915: Stalemates and New Fronts

1. January–February: Naval Blockades

Britain imposed a naval blockade on Germany, and Germany responded with submarine warfare.

2. April 25: Gallipoli Campaign

Allied forces attempted to capture the Gallipoli Peninsula to secure a sea route to Russia. The campaign ended in failure after heavy losses.

3. April 22: Second Battle of Ypres

Germany used poison gas on the Western Front for the first time, signaling the advent of chemical warfare.

4. May 7: Sinking of RMS Lusitania

A German U-boat sank the British ocean liner, killing 1,198 civilians, including Americans. This escalated tensions between Germany and the United States.

1916: Escalation and Heavy Losses

1. February–December: Battle of Verdun

One of the longest and bloodiest battles in history, Verdun saw French and German forces locked in a war of attrition.

2. July 1–November 18: Battle of the Somme

British and French forces launched an offensive against Germany, resulting in massive casualties and little territorial gain.

3. May 31–June 1: Battle of Jutland

The largest naval battle of the war, fought between Britain and Germany, ended inconclusively but maintained British naval dominance.

1917: Turning Points

1. March: Russian Revolution

The abdication of Tsar Nicholas II led to political upheaval in Russia, weakening its war effort.

2. April 6: United States Enters the War

After repeated provocations, including unrestricted submarine warfare and the Zimmermann Telegram, the U.S. declared war on Germany.

3. July–November: Third Battle of Ypres (Passchendaele)

Allied forces attempted to break through German lines in Flanders but suffered heavy losses in mud-soaked battlefields.

4. November 7: Bolshevik Revolution in Russia

The Bolsheviks seized power and began negotiating peace with Germany, leading to Russia’s withdrawal from the war.

1918: The War Ends

1. March 3: Treaty of Brest-Litovsk

Russia signed a peace treaty with Germany, ceding significant territory.

2. March–July: German Spring Offensive

Germany launched a final offensive on the Western Front, making initial gains but ultimately exhausting its forces.

July–November: Allied Counteroffensives

The Second Battle of the Marne and subsequent offensives pushed German forces into retreat.

November 11: Armistice Signed

Germany agreed to an armistice, ending hostilities on the Western Front.

Aftermath and Legacy

1919: Treaty of Versailles

The Treaty of Versailles formally ended the war, imposing harsh penalties on Germany and redrawing the map of Europe.

A direct result of this Treaty was that after 20 years of its conclusion, Germany invaded France via Belgium and on the southern Maginot Line.

Implications of World War I

World War I, with its unprecedented scale and devastating consequences, left profound impacts across multiple spheres—short-term and long-term, economic, political, cultural, and ethnic.

Short-Term Implications

1. Human Loss and Physical Destruction
   • The war caused an estimated 16 million deaths and millions more wounded, leaving a generation scarred physically and emotionally.
   • Entire regions, particularly in Europe, were devastated by trench warfare, artillery bombardments, and chemical weapons, causing widespread destruction of infrastructure, homes, and agricultural land.
2. Immediate Economic Impact
   • The war led to severe financial strain on participating nations. European economies were left in ruins, with vast debts accumulated from war expenditures.
   • Inflation rose sharply, and many countries, including Germany and Austria-Hungary, faced economic instability.
3. Political Instability and Revolutions
   • The war precipitated political upheaval and led to the collapse of empires, notably the Austro-Hungarian Empire, Ottoman Empire, Russian Empire, and German Empire.
   • Revolutions and political movements surged, such as the Bolshevik Revolution in Russia (1917), which led to the establishment of the Soviet Union and Russia’s withdrawal from the war.
4. Treaty of Versailles and Its Immediate Effects
   • The Treaty of Versailles (1919) formally ended the war but imposed harsh terms on Germany, including territorial losses, military restrictions, and heavy reparations.
   • The treaty generated widespread resentment, particularly in Germany, and contributed to the economic hardships and political instability that would eventually lead to World War II.
5. Social Change and Gender Roles
   • The war brought about significant changes in gender roles, as women entered the workforce in unprecedented numbers to fill roles left vacant by men who had gone to fight.
   • Many women gained the right to vote after the war, reflecting the shift in societal norms.

Long-Term Implications

1. Global Power Shift
   • Europe’s dominance was significantly reduced. The United States and Japan emerged as stronger global powers, while European colonial empires began to weaken.
   • The U.S. played a more prominent role in world affairs post-1918, helping shape the interwar period and the eventual rise of international institutions like the League of Nations.
2. Economic Depression
   • The economic effects of the war, coupled with the reparations imposed on Germany, led to hyperinflation (especially in Germany) and economic instability in many parts of Europe.
   • The Great Depression (1929) was partially a consequence of the economic conditions exacerbated by World War I, affecting global trade and causing widespread unemployment.
3. Rise of Totalitarian Regimes
   • The economic and political instability created fertile ground for the rise of totalitarian regimes.
   • In Germany, the Treaty of Versailles and subsequent hardships fostered the conditions that allowed Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party to gain power. Similarly, fascism rose in Italy under Benito Mussolini, and communism spread in Russia, leading to the rise of the Soviet Union.
4. Redrawing of National Boundaries
   • The dissolution of empires led to the re-drawing of national borders, with new countries emerging in Central and Eastern Europe (e.g., Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia) and the Middle East (e.g., Iraq, Syria, Palestine).
   • These changes often created tensions, as ethnic groups were placed within new national boundaries, sowing the seeds for future conflicts.

Economic Implications

1. War Debts and Reparations
   • The Allied powers, particularly France and Britain, incurred massive debt during the war. Germany, under the terms of the Treaty of Versailles, was required to pay reparations, which crippled its economy.
   • The global economic impact included a disrupted international trade system and inflationary pressures, particularly in Germany and Austria.
2. Decline of European Economies
   • After the war, much of Europe’s industrial infrastructure was damaged, hindering economic recovery. The disruption of trade, along with the rise of protectionism, exacerbated economic problems.
   • Meanwhile, the U.S. emerged as the world’s economic leader, lending significant funds to European countries post-war.

Political Implications

1. End of Monarchies and Empires
   • World War I led to the collapse of monarchies in Russia (Tsar Nicholas II), Germany (Kaiser Wilhelm II), and Austria-Hungary (Emperor Franz Joseph).
   • The collapse of these empires also led to the redrawing of the map in Europe and the Middle East, giving rise to new nations and shifting political landscapes.
2. Formation of the League of Nations
   • The League of Nations was established to promote international cooperation and prevent future conflicts. However, it lacked enforcement power and was ultimately ineffective in preventing the rise of aggressive regimes, particularly in Germany and Italy.

Cultural Implications

1. Art and Literature
   • The trauma of the war deeply influenced literature, with works such as Erich Maria Remarque’s “All Quiet on the Western Front” and Wilfred Owen’s poetry capturing the disillusionment of soldiers.
   • Art also reflected the post-war reality, with movements like Dadaism and Surrealism reacting to the horrors of the war and the absurdity of violence.
2. Psychological Impact
   • The war left a significant psychological impact on soldiers, known as “shell shock” (now understood as PTSD), affecting mental health treatment and societal views on war and trauma.
   • The loss of an entire generation also had lasting effects on cultural memory and national identity.

Ethnic and Social Implications

1. Nationalism and Ethnic Tensions
   • World War I heightened nationalist sentiment across Europe, often leading to the disintegration of multi-ethnic empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.
   • In newly formed states, ethnic minorities, such as Serbs, Germans, Hungarians, and others, often faced discrimination, resulting in social tensions that lasted for decades.
2. Impact on the Middle East
   • The Ottoman Empire’s collapse led to the partitioning of its territories under the Sykes-Picot Agreement and the Balfour Declaration, leading to conflicts in the Middle East that persist to this day.
   • The creation of modern-day Iraq, Syria, and Palestine from Ottoman lands sowed the seeds of ethnic and religious conflicts in the region.

Other Implications

Technological and Military Advancements

World War I led to significant advancements in military technology, including tanks, aircraft, and chemical weapons. The war also laid the groundwork for modern warfare tactics that would be expanded in World War II.

International Relations and Isolationism

The war prompted some nations, notably the United States, to adopt more isolationist foreign policies after the failure of the League of Nations. This isolationism lasted until World War II.

Decolonization Post First World War

The aftermath of World War I marked a critical period of transformation for imperial powers and their colonies. While decolonization as a widespread phenomenon was more prominent after World War II, the seeds of decolonization were sown during and immediately after the First World War. Several political, economic, and social forces set the stage for the gradual dismantling of European empires in the years following the war.

Factors Contributing to Decolonization Post-World War I

1. The Collapse of Empires
   • The Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian Empire, Russian Empire, and German Empire were dismantled following their defeat in the war.
   • The end of these empires created new states and reshaped borders, leaving many former colonies and territories with a newfound sense of political agency.
   • The Treaty of Versailles and the creation of new nation-states (e.g., Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Poland) marked a shift toward self-determination, especially in Europe, which indirectly influenced colonial demands for independence.
2. Nationalism and the Rise of Anti-Colonial Movements
   • During the war, many colonies had contributed significantly to the war effort by providing troops, laborers, and resources. This raised expectations for greater political rights and recognition from the colonial powers.
   • The experience of war also fostered nationalist sentiment in colonies as people began to question imperial authority.
   • Leaders like Mahatma Gandhi in India and Ho Chi Minh in French Indochina began to push for greater autonomy or independence, using the rhetoric of self-determination promoted by U.S. President Woodrow Wilson during the peace negotiations.
3. The Impact of Woodrow Wilson’s 14 Points
   • Wilson’s 14 Points, particularly the principle of self-determination (Point 5), had a significant influence on colonial subjects, inspiring demands for independence.
   • Although the 14 Points were largely ignored in the post-war settlement, the idea that nations should have the right to govern themselves gained widespread popularity.
4. Economic Strain on Colonial Powers
   • The economic devastation caused by World War I weakened European colonial powers, making it more difficult for them to maintain their vast empires.
   • Many imperial nations were financially exhausted, with significant debt and economic instability, leading them to reconsider their commitment to maintaining costly colonies.
   • In addition, the disruption of trade routes and markets during the war shifted global economic dynamics, giving rise to new economic centers and reducing European dependence on their colonies.
5. Social and Ideological Changes
   • Socialism, communism, and other ideologies advocating for workers’ and colonial liberation began to spread after the war.
   • The Russian Revolution of 1917 inspired anti-imperialist movements, and the idea that colonial subjects should be able to control their own political and economic systems gained traction.
   • The post-war period also saw a greater focus on human rights, further supporting the notion of independence and self-governance.

Decolonization in the 1920s and 1930s

While significant decolonization movements were not fully realized until after World War II, the interwar period witnessed important developments:

1. India and the British Empire
   • India was one of the largest and most important colonies in the British Empire. The war heightened Indian expectations for political concessions, with leaders like Gandhi advocating for self-rule.
   • The Non-Cooperation Movement (1920-1922) led by Gandhi was a non-violent form of resistance against British rule.
   • The Simon Commission (1928), which the British set up without Indian representation, fueled further discontent. The Salt March (1930) and other acts of civil disobedience marked significant steps in India’s push toward independence.
2. The Middle East and the Ottoman Empire
   • The Ottoman Empire was dismantled after World War I, and many former Ottoman territories were divided among European powers under the Sykes-Picot Agreement (1916).
   • British and French mandates in the Middle East, including the creation of Iraq, Syria, and Palestine, led to strong nationalist movements in the region as Arabs sought greater autonomy or independence.
   • In Egypt, nationalists pushed for greater autonomy from Britain, and in Turkey, Mustafa Kemal Atatürk led the Turkish War of Independence, resulting in the establishment of the Republic of Turkey in 1923.
3. Africa and the Expansion of Nationalism
   • In Africa, many colonies began to foster nationalist movements, though these were often limited by the colonial powers’ resistance to change.
   • Countries such as Kenya, South Africa, and Nigeria saw the emergence of early nationalist leaders who began demanding more rights and self-governance.
   • However, colonial authorities suppressed African nationalism, and decolonization in Africa would take several more decades to materialize.
4. French Indochina and the Rise of Communist Nationalism
   • In French Indochina (modern-day Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia), the war and the subsequent economic hardships led to rising nationalist sentiments.
   • Ho Chi Minh, a key figure in the Vietnamese nationalist movement, sought to gain independence for Vietnam. His early efforts were rooted in communist ideology, and he would later play a central role in the First Indochina War against French rule.

Limitations and Challenges to Decolonization Post-WWI

1. Lack of Immediate Independence
   • Despite growing nationalist movements, European powers were reluctant to relinquish their colonies. The post-war settlement favored maintaining the status quo, and many colonies faced continued political suppression.
   • The League of Nations mandates, rather than granting self-rule, often placed colonies under the direct control of European powers despite the rhetoric of self-determination.
2. Resistance to Change
   • Many European powers, including Britain, France, and Belgium, were deeply invested in the economic exploitation of their colonies. They were not willing to quickly give up the resources and geopolitical influence that their colonial empires provided.
   • In the Middle East and Africa, French and British resistance to local uprisings delayed the independence movements for several decades.
3. Divisions Among Nationalists
   • Within many colonies, nationalist movements were not unified, and internal divisions (e.g., ethnic, religious, or ideological) sometimes hindered progress toward independence.
   • In some regions, such as in India and Egypt, there was tension between moderate reformists and more radical nationalist leaders, which complicated efforts for independence.